1. Organize bags of animal bone by provenience.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
2. Use an inventory of these bags and their provenience as a checklist.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
3. Inspect the bones contained in several bags before beginning your analysis.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
4. Use one or more metal or plastic trays to hold the bones of a single bag while analyzing them. Be sure to keep the provenience information with the bones by placing labels on or in each tray.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
5. Use a denture brush and dull-tipped dental picks to remove dirt as needed.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
6. Use a 10X magnification loop to inspect the bone as needed.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
7. Sort bones from a single bag by laying them out with the most similar ones together.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
8. Remove any non-bone materials such as rocks, twigs, and fragments of ceramic; bag these separately as \u201cnon-bone\u201d; be sure to preserve the provenience information.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
9. Set up a sandbox for bone mending.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
10. Inspect the bones for fresh breaks and make any mends that are possible.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Bone vs. Stone\u2014Bone sticks to the tongue. Stone produces a sharp sound when dropped on a table.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Bone vs. Ceramic\u2014Bone sticks to the tongue. A thumbnail can scratch calcined bone. Most ceramics will not stick to the tongue or be easily scratched.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Bone vs. Plant\u2014Bone usually does not float. Plant material will compress if pushed on with a thumbnail.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
1. Reliable data is what you know, not what you think. Always check your intuition against a reliable source. No matter how many deer femurs you have seen in your lifetime, you should always compare the bone you think is a deer femur to an actual deer femur, or a scale illustration of a one. Don\u2019t get sloppy just to save time.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
2. Exclusion is as important as inclusion. Sometimes figuring out what your bone is not is the simplest way to increase your certainty as to what it actually is. Check species lists for the other sites in the area. Check the geographic distributions of species in the state.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
3. If you are going to make an unusual identification, you need to be 100 percent certain. Don\u2019t identify an Arizona gray squirrel tibia in an assemblage from New York unless you are positive it is an Arizona gray squirrel and not an eastern gray squirrel.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
4. Ignore identifications made by others. Field bags and field notes are filled with the intuitions of others, and often these notes can lead you astray. I once spent days looking for a sheep skull that a field crew kept asking about only to discover that the pig cranium I had already identified had been mistakenly identified by the crew.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
5. Don\u2019t make an identification just to avoid admitting you are not sure what it is. Every assemblage has its unidentifiables.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Antler\u2014very wood-like or bark-like exterior surface and very dense outer cortex and inner spongy bone, no interior cavity<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Horn\u2014very dense exterior and interior surfaces are porous with holes penetrating from the exterior surface into the interior<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Mammal\u2014large size with complex shape, large central foramen, flat articular surfaces<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Fish\u2014roundish solid centrum with little or no central foramen<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Bird\u2014complex shape with small central foramen, saddle-shaped articulations, rear-facing spines on lateral surfaces, fusion of vertebrae<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Reptile\u2014small central foramen, roundish central body with a ball-like projection at one end and a depressed articular surface at the other (turtles have two lobes on central body)<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Amphibian\u2014small central foramen, oval-ish central body with relatively flat articular surfaces, large lateral projections<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Cervical\u2014small centrum; overall ring-like shape; three foramina<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Thoracic\u2014larger centrum; large spinous process<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Lumbar\u2014largest centrum; short spinous process; large transverse processes<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Sacral\u2014fuse to form sacrum<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Caudal\u2014small central foramen or no foramen; small transverse processes; may appear star-shaped in cross-section<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Cervical\u2014no neural spine<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Thoracic\u2014neural spine extends up from central body and points toward tail<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Precaudal\u2014neural spine plus transverse processes extending out to sides<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Caudal\u2014neural spine plus haemal spine extending downward<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Penultimate\u2014only a short neural spine<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Ultimate\u2014no spines, support for tail fin present<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Cervical\u2014small centrum; three foramina; rear-facing thin bone projections (hypapophyses)<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Thoracic\u2014larger centrum; large neural arch and spinous process; may be fused together<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Lumbar\u2014fused vertebrae; also fused to sacral vertebrae and pelvis<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Sacral\u2014fused to pelvis as part of synsacrum<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Caudal\u2014small centrum with spinous and transverse processes<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Pygostyle\u2014vertebral body with finlike projection<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Mammal\u2014tend to break into complex shapes; fragments of centrum are porous; fragments of spinous and transverse processes resemble ribs but are thinner<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Fish\u2014tend to separate into round central bodies and long, thin spines; the bodies resemble spools with depressed ends; the spines resemble sewing needles with a triangular end at the attachment to the centrum<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Bird\u2014vertebra are robust and often fused together or to other bones, making breakage difficult<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Reptiles\u2014vertebra are small and robust, making breakage difficult<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Amphibians\u2014vertebra are small and robust, making breakage difficult<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Mammal\u2014squarish in cross-section; inner spongy bone is more organized and less dense than in long bones<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Fish\u2014very long, thin, and curved with transparent to translucent character<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Bird\u2014flat and some are forked near mid-shaft for the uncinate process<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Mammal\u2014complex shape with thin to thick outer cortex and disorganized spongy bone throughout the interior<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Bird\u2014fragments that do break off tend to be very thin; otherwise the fusion makes the bone resistant to breakage<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Reptile\u2014density of the acetabulum and ilium makes these the most common fragments that are still identifiable<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Amphibian\u2014density of the acetabulum and ilium makes these the most common fragments that are still identifiable<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Mammal\u2014deep acetabulum and large obturator foramen<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Fish\u2014located near cranium; has fin support structures; shaped like a wishbone<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Bird\u2014fused together to form synsacrum; three foramina form diagnostic pattern<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Reptile\u2014very shallow acetabulum, except those with large obturator foramina; turtle and tortoise pelves resemble a party mask<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Amphibian\u2014ilium tends to be the most prominent component of the pelvis<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Mammal\u2014large fragments of thin and flat bone, with no clear interior surface, are usually fragments of mammal scapulae<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Fish\u2014resemble cranial fragments<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Bird\u2014scapula fragments resemble rib fragments without uncinate process; coracoids break below proximal articulation, leaving blade fragments that are relatively flat but often with shallow depressions or raised lines<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Reptile and Amphibian\u2014small size and density makes them resistant to breakage<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Mammal\u2014triangular-shaped scapulae; no coracoids<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Fish\u2014no scapulae; do have coracoids and clavicles as a complex of fused bones just behind the cranium<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Bird\u2014scapulae are rib-like in appearance; coracoids are hooked at one end; clavicles are fused to form furcula<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Reptile\u2014shoulder girdle resembles pelvic girdle but with longer and thinner elements<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Amphibian\u2014shoulder girdle resembles pelvic girdle but with longer and thinner elements<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Humerus\u2014proximal articulation is convex (rounded) to form shoulder<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Ulna and Radio-ulna\u2014proximal articulation is concave (cupped) to form elbow<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Radius\u2014proximal articulation is relatively flat in profile but relatively circular in plan<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Humerus\u2014shaft is a twisted cylinder; proximal end is a round knob; distal end is complex with the shaft dividing into two parts just before the articulation<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Ulna\u2014proximal end is a hook; shaft is relatively thin but is almost entirely hard cortex; distal end tapers to a point<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Radius\u2014proximal end is flat with a slight depression and round to oval in shape; shaft is often D-shaped in cross-section; distal end flares out<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Humerus\u2014proximal articulation is rounded and contains a diagnostic fossa and\/or crest; distal articulation resembles a clenched fist<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Ulna\u2014shaft is relatively round in cross-section; may have a column of raised quill knobs along shaft; proximal articulation is sloped; distal articulation is W-shaped<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Radius\u2014shaft is relatively round in cross-section; proximal articulation is roundish with a small facet just below it<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Carpometacarpus\u2014very dense and complex-shaped bone; proximal articulation resembles a pulley; shaft is split in two; distal articulation may have stepped appearance<\/p>\n\n\n\n
All are relatively paddle-shaped with a dense outer cortex. Articular ends are relatively shapeless when compared to those of mammals.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Humerus\u2014proximal shaft has a crest but otherwise has a tubelike appearance and some curvature; distal end is rounded and ball-shaped<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Radio-ulna\u2014proximal end is concave, and shaft is clearly two shafts fused together; distal end is tubelike but two tubes fused together<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Mammal\u2014proximal humerus has a rounded knob; proximal ulna has a hook; radius is D-shaped in cross-section<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Bird\u2014proximal humerus is rounded; distal humerus resembles a clenched fist; radius and ulna are both long and thin; carpometacarpus has a pulley on proximal end and a stepped distal end<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Reptile\u2014humerus, radius, and ulna are all globular and somewhat paddle-shaped<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Amphibian\u2014humerus has a rounded distal articulation; radio-ulna is concave at the proximal articulation and fans out from there with two shafts fused together<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Femur\u2014shaft is very round in cross-section; proximal end has projections known as trochanters; distal end has two large, rounded condyles<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Tibia\u2014proximal shaft is triangular in cross-section; distal shaft is D-shaped in cross-section; proximal end has two articular surfaces separated by a small ridge; distal articular end has a projection that is positioned medially<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Fibula\u2014shaft is long and relatively thin and sometimes is fused to the lateral shaft of the tibia<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Femur\u2014resembles mammal femur but has much thinner walls and is lighter in weight<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Tibiotarsus\u2014proximal articulation is very angular; distal shaft has a shallow canal running down it; distal articulation resembles that of a femur but with less-prominent condyles<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Tarsometatarsus\u2014distal end has three-pronged shape or three trochleas; proximal articulation resembles that of a mammal tibia but has two foramina, one on the medial and one lateral side of the anterior shaft surface<\/p>\n\n\n\n
All are relatively paddle-shaped with a dense outer cortex. Articular ends are relatively shapeless when compared to mammals.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Femur\u2014long and thin with no clear features<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Tibiofibula\u2014resembles a long, thin, and compact X shape with a depression or foramen at the center<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Mammal\u2014femur has two large projections at each end; tibia is triangular at proximal end and D-shaped at distal end<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Bird\u2014femur resembles that of a mammal but with less distinctive shape; distal end of tibiotarsus can be mistaken for a femur, but the proximal end is very tibia-like; tarsometatarsus has complex three-pronged shape to distal articulation<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Reptile\u2014femur, tibia, and fibula are all somewhat paddle-shaped<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Amphibian\u2014femur and tibiofibula are long and thin with few features<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Both have a very dense outer cortex with little interior spongy bone. Interior may show remnants of the fusion of two bones together; this is also sometimes evident on the exterior of the bone.Metacarpals\u2014proximal articulation is D-shapedMetatarsals\u2014proximal articulation is square<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Carpals\u2014often resemble small rocks, but have many smooth articular surfaces in between rough surfaces; usually smaller than tarsals<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Tarsals\u2014larger size and more complex shape makes them easier to identify than carpals<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Metacarpals and Metatarsals\u2014distal end has knob shape or pulley shape<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Phalanges\u2014proximal end is concave; distal end is convex; a small shaft is in between<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Tiny\u2014finch or sparrow (<50 grams or 1.76 ounces)<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Small\u2014thrush (50\u2013100 g or 1.76-3.53 oz)<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Medium\u2014pigeon (100\u2013400 g or 3.53-14.11 oz)<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Large\u2014chicken (400-3000 g or 14.11-105.82 oz)<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Very large\u2014goose (>3 kilograms or 6.6 pounds)<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Size 1 or Small Mammal\u2014rabbit (< 50 pounds or 22.68 kilograms)<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Size 2 or Medium Mammal\u2014pig (50\u2013250 lbs or 22.68-113.40 kg)<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Size 3 or Medium-Large Mammal\u2014deer (250\u2013750 lbs or 113.40-340.19 kg)<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Size 4 or Large Mammal\u2014cow (750\u20132000 lbs or 340.19-907.18 kg)<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Size 5 or Very Large Mammal\u2014elephant (> 2000 lbs or 907.18 kg)<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
Preparing Your Assemblage 1. Organize bags of animal bone by provenience. 2. Use an inventory of these bags and their provenience as a checklist. 3. Inspect the bones contained in several bags before beginning your analysis. 4. Use one or more metal or plastic trays to hold the bones of a single bag while analyzing […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-19","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/aprilbeisaw.com\/identifyingbones\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/19","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/aprilbeisaw.com\/identifyingbones\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/aprilbeisaw.com\/identifyingbones\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/aprilbeisaw.com\/identifyingbones\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/aprilbeisaw.com\/identifyingbones\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=19"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/aprilbeisaw.com\/identifyingbones\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/19\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":20,"href":"https:\/\/aprilbeisaw.com\/identifyingbones\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/19\/revisions\/20"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/aprilbeisaw.com\/identifyingbones\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=19"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}